Multiracial Americans are Americans who have mixed descendants of "two or more races". The term may also include racially mixed Americans who identify with only one cultural and social group (see one-drop rule). In the US census 2010, about 9 million people, or 2.9% of the population, identified themselves as multiracial. There is evidence that accounting by genetic ancestors will produce higher numbers. Historical reasons, including slavery that create racial caste and European-American oppression of Native Americans, often make people identify or classified by only one ethnic, generally from the culture in which they were raised. Before the mid-20th century, many people hid their multiracial heritage due to racial discrimination against minorities. While many Americans may be biologically multiracial, they often do not know it or do not identify culturally, more than they retain all the different traditions of national ancestors.
After a long period of formal racial segregation in the former Confederates after the Reconstruction Era, and the prohibition of interracial marriages in different parts of the country, more people openly formed racial unity. In addition, social conditions have changed and many multiracial people do not believe it is socially advantageous to try to "pass" as white. Diverse immigration has brought more racially mixed people to the United States, such as significant Hispanic populations that identify as mestizos. Since the 1980s, the United States has had an increasingly multiracial identity movement (eg, Loving Day). As more and more Americans insist on recognizing the origin of their mixed race, the 2000 census for the first time allowed the population to examine more than one ethno-racial identity and thus identify it as multiracial. In 2008 Barack Obama was elected the first President of the United States biracial; he acknowledges both sides of his family and identifies as African Americans.
Currently, multiracial individuals are found in every corner of the country. Multiracial groups in the United States include many Mestizo Americans, Americans, African Americans, Louisiana Creoles, Hapas, Melungeons, Lumbees, Houmas, and several other communities found mainly in the Eastern US. Many multiracial Native Americans in their ancestors whilst identifying fully as members of a federally recognized tribe.
Video Multiracial Americans
History
Americans are largely multi-ethnic descendants of different culturally diverse groups of immigrants, many of whom have now developed nations. Some consider themselves multiracial, while acknowledging race as a social construction. Creation, assimilation and integration have continued. The Movement of Civil Rights and other social movements since the mid-twentieth century worked to achieve social justice and the upholding of equal civil rights under the constitution for all ethnicities. In the 2000s, less than 5% of the population was identified as multiracial. In many instances, mixed race ancestors are very far in the history of one's family (eg, before the Civil War or earlier), that it does not affect the more recent ethnic and cultural identification.
Race-to-race, general-law marriage and marriage occurred from the earliest colonial years, especially before slavery was hardened as a racial caste associated with Africans in the British colony. Virginia and other British colonies passed a law in the seventeenth century that gave children the social status of their mothers, in accordance with the principle of the Partiter sequitur ventrem, irrespective of race or dad's citizenship. This reverses the principle of English common law in which a man gives his status to his children - this has enabled the public to prosecute fathers in favor of their children, whether valid or not. The change enhances the ability of white men to sexually use sexual slaves, as they are not responsible for children. As lords and fathers of mixed race children born as slaves, men can use these people as servants or laborers or sell them as slaves. In some cases, white fathers provide their multiracial children, pay or organize education or internships and release them, especially during the two decades after the American Revolution. (The practice of providing children is more common in French and Spanish colonies, where color classes of people develop into educators and property owners.) Many other white fathers leave mixed-race children and their mothers into slavery.
Researcher Paul Heinegg found that most of the colored free-skinned families of the colonial period were founded from the white women's unions, both free and obligatory servants, and African men, slaves, compulsory or free. In the early years, working class people live and work together. Their children are free because of the status of white women. This is in contrast to the pattern in the post-Revolution era, where most of the mixed race children have white fathers and slave mothers.
Anti-marriage laws were passed in most countries in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries, but this did not prevent white slave owners, their sons, or other strong white men from taking female slaves as concubines and have children multiracs with them. In California and the western US, there are more Latin and Asian inhabitants. This is prohibited from official contact with whites. The white legislator passed a law prohibiting marriage between Europe and Asia America until the 1950s.
Early American history
Race relationships have a long history in North America and the United States, beginning with mixing of European explorers and soldiers, who make indigenous women friends. After increasing European settlement, traders and fur-catchers often marry or have union with indigenous women. In the seventeenth century, faced with a critical and continuous scarcity of labor, the colonists, especially in the Chesapeake Bay Colony, imported Africans as laborers, sometimes as identified servants and, increasingly, as slaves. African slaves were also imported to New York and other northern ports by the Netherlands and then England. Some African slaves were freed by their masters during these early years.
In the colonial years, while the conditions were more fluid, white women, servants or free, and African men, servants, slaves or free, made unions. Because the women are free, their mixed race children are born free; they and their descendants formed the majority of free-skinned families during the colonial period in Virginia. Cleric Paul Heinegg found that eighty percent of the color-free people in North Carolina in the census from 1790-1810 could be traced to free families in Virginia in the colonial years.
In 1789 Olaudah Equiano, a former Nigerian slave who was enslaved in North America, published his autobiography. He advocated marriage between the whites and the blacks. At the end of the XVIII century, visitors in the South Upstream noted the high proportion of mixed race slaves, evidence of white-skinned miscegenation.
In 1790, the first federal population census was taken in the United States. The enumerators are instructed to classify the free population as whites or "others." Only household heads were identified by name in the federal census until 1850. Native Americans were among "Other;" in subsequent censuses, they are included as "People of color-free dress" if they do not live in the place of the Indians. The slaves were counted separately from free men in all censuses until the Civil War and the end of slavery. In the later census, people of African descent were classified on the basis of appearances as mulatto (which is acknowledged to be European or African ancestry) or black.
After the American Revolutionary War, the number and proportions of color-free people increased significantly in the North and South as slaves were freed. Most northern states abolish slavery, sometimes, like New York, in a gradual emancipation program that takes more than two decades to complete. The last slaves in New York were not released until 1827. In connection with the Second Enlightenment preacher, the Great Southern Methodist and Preachers urged slave owners to free their slaves. The revolutionary ideals encouraged many men to free their slaves, some by deeds and others by will, so from 1782 to 1810, the percentage of color-free people rose from less than one percent to nearly 10 percent of blacks in the South. <19th_century: 19th_century: _American_Civil_War.2C_emancipation.2C_Reconstruction_and_Jim_Crow "> 19th_century: _American_Civil_War, _emancipation, _Reconstruction_and_Jim_Crow"> 19th century: American Civil War, emancipation, Reconstruction and Jim Crow
Of the many relationships between the male slave holder, the supervisor, or the son of the employer and the female slave, the most prominent possibility is President Thomas Jefferson with his slave, Sally Hemings. As stated in the collaborative Smithsonian-Monticello 2012 exhibition, Slavery at Monticello: The Paradox of Liberty , Jefferson, then a widower, took Hemings as his concubine for nearly 40 years. They have six children recorded; four Hemings children survived to adulthood, and he freed them all, among the very few slaves he freed. Two people were allowed to "escape" to the North in 1822, and two were granted freedom by his will to his death in 1826. Seven-eight with his ancestors, his four sons who Hemings moved to the northern states as adults; three out of four entered the white community, and all of their descendants were identified as whites. From the descendants of Madison Hemings, who continue to be identified as black, some in future generations eventually identified as white and "married", while others continue to identify as African Americans. Socially beneficial for Hemings children to be identified as whites, according to their appearance and the proportion of the majority of their ancestors. Despite being born into slavery, Hemings' children were legally white under Virginia law at the time.
20th century
Racial discrimination continues to apply in new laws in the 20th century, for example the one-drop rule enacted in the 1924 Racial Integrity Act in Virginia and in the other southern states, partly influenced by the popularity of eugenics and the idea of ​​racial purity. People bury faded memories that many whites have multiracial offspring. Many families are multiracial. Similar laws have been proposed but not endorsed by the end of the nineteenth century in South Carolina and Virginia, for example. After regaining political power in the Southern states by depriving them of blacks, the white Democrats passed legislation to impose Jim Crow and racial segregation to restore white supremacy. They defended this until it was forced to change in the 1960s and thereafter by the enforcement of federal laws authorizing to oversee practices to protect the constitutional rights of African Americans and other minority citizens.
In 1967, the case of the United States Supreme Court, Loving v. Virginia decided that anti-marriage laws were unconstitutional.
In the 20th century to 1989, social service organizations typically assign multiracial children to the racial identity of minority parents, reflecting hypodecent social practices. Black social workers have influenced court decisions about identity-related rules; they argue that, since the birchal child is socially considered black, it should be classified as such to identify with groups and learn to deal with discrimination.
In 1990, the Census Bureau included more than a dozen ethnic/racial categories in the census, reflecting not only changing the social idea of ​​ethnicity, but the various immigrants who came to the United States due to changes in historical and new forces. immigration laws in the 1960s. With a changing society, more and more people are beginning to press for recognizing multiracial ancestors. The Census Bureau alters its data collection by allowing people to identify themselves as more than one ethnic group. Some ethnic groups are concerned about potential political and economic effects, as federal aid to historically underserved groups depends on Census data. According to the Census Bureau, in 2002, more than 75% of all African Americans have multiracial ancestors.
The proportion of recognized multiracial children in the United States grows. Interracial partnerships are on the rise, as are transcription adoptions. In 1990, about 14% from 18 to 19 years, 12% from 20 to 21 years, and 7% from 34 to 35 years old were involved in interracial relations (Joyner and Kao, 2005).
Maps Multiracial Americans
Demographics
Multiracists wanting to recognize their full legacy won victory in 1997, when the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) changed the federal rules of the racial category to allow for multiple responses. This resulted in a change in the 2000 US Census, which allowed participants to select more than one of the six available categories, which, in short: "White," "Black or African American," "" Asian, "" American Indian or Alaskan Native , "" Hawaiian natives or other Pacific islands, "and" Other. "Further details are provided in the article: Race (US census). OMB made a mandatory directive for all forms of government in 2003.
In 2000, Cindy Rodriguez reported a reaction to the new census:
For many of the major civil rights groups, the new census is part of a multiracial nightmare. After decades of framing racial issues in black and white terms, they fear that the multiracial movement will break the old alliance, weaken the colored people by breaking them into new subgroups.
Some multiracial individuals feel marginalized by US society. For example, when enrolling in a school or for a job, or when taking a standard test, Americans are sometimes asked to tick boxes appropriate for race or ethnicity. Typically, about five race options are given, with instructions for "checking only one." While some surveys offer "other" squares, these groups of choice together with people of various types are multiracial (eg European/African American Americans grouped with Asian Indians/Native Americans).
The US 2000 census in the write response category has a list of codes that standardize the placement of various write responses-for automatic placement within the race frame mentioned by the US Census. While most responses can be distinguished as falling into one of the five mentioned competitions, there are still some written responses falling into the "Mixed" title that can not be categorized racially. These include "Bi Racial, Combinations, Everything, Much, Mixed, Multi-National, Many, Many and Diverse".
In 1997, Greg Mayeda, a member of the Board of Directors for the Hapa Problems Forum, attended a meeting on a new racial classification for the 2000 US Census. He argued against the multiracial category and for multiracial people counted as all of their races. He argues that a
Separate Multirate boxes do not allow someone who identifies a mixed race as an opportunity to be accurately calculated. After all, we are not just a mixed race. We are representative of all racial groups and should be counted as such. The stand-alone Multiracial box reveals very little about the background of the person checking it out.
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner of California State University, Northridge, who analyzed the 2000 Census, most multiracists were identified as white. In addition, the details are as follows:
- white/Native American and Alaskan Native, at 7.015,017,
- white/black at 737,492,
- white/Asian on 727,197, and
- White/Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander at 125,628.
In 2010, 1.6 million Americans examined "black" and "white" on their census forms, a figure 134% higher than the figure a decade earlier. The number of interracial marriage and relationships, and international transracial and adoption has increased the proportion of multiracial families. Moreover, more individuals may identify many ancestors, as the concept is more widely accepted.
Family multiras
In an article about mixed race children who have identity problems, Charlotte Nitary states:
Wardle (1989) says that today, parents assume one of the three positions as the identity of their interracial children. Some insist that their child is a 'man above all' and that race or ethnicity is irrelevant, while others choose to raise their children with colored parent identities. Another growing parent group insists that the child has the ethnic, racial, cultural and genetic heritage of both parents.
In his book Love Revolution: Interracial Marriage , Maria P. P. Root writes:
Women with children, especially biracial children, have fewer opportunities to remarry than women who do not have children. And since divorce children tend to stick with mothers, being incorporated into new families when their mothers remarry, religious children more threaten racial markers and racial authenticity for families where race is important.
In 2009, Keith Bardwell, a peace judge in Robert, Louisiana, refused to lead marriage to interracial couples and was quickly sued in federal court. See interracial marriage rejection in Louisiana.
About 15% of all new marriages in the United States in 2010 are between races or ethnic pairs different from each other, more than double the share in 1980 (6.7%).
American multi-racial identity
Given the diversity of family and general social environments in which multiracial children are raised, along with their diversity of looks and heritage, generalizations about the challenges or opportunities of multiracial children are not very useful.
The social identity of children and their parents in the same multiracial family may vary or be the same. Some multiracial children feel pressure from various sources to "choose" or identify as a single racial identity. Others may feel pressured not to abandon one or more of their ethnicities, especially if culturally identified.
Some multiracial individuals attempt to claim new categories. For example, athlete Tiger Woods says that he is not only African American but "Cablinasian," as he is Caucasian, African American, Native American, and Asian descendant.
Some children grow up without race becomes a significant problem in their lives.
[B] with multiracial can still cause problems. Much of the racial construction in America revolves around a peculiar institution known as the 'one-fall rule'... One-drop vanity forms both racism - creating 'caste' arbitrarily - and collective responses against it. To identify as multiracial is to challenge this logic, and consequently, to fall outside the two camps.
[M] every monoracial does see multiracial identity as an option that rejects loyalty to oppressed racial groups. We can see this issue being applied at this time during the US census debate to include the multiracial category - some oppressed monoracial groups believe that this category will lower their numbers and 'benefits'.
Many students call themselves 'half Asian/Black/etc.' came to college to seek cultural knowledge but found themselves not welcome in an ethnic 'whole' peer group. '(Renn, 1998) He found that as a result of this exclusion, many multiracial students expressed the need to create and maintain identifiable multiracial communities on campus. Multiracial people can get to know each other, because "they share their experience in navigating college life as multiracial people," (Renn, 1998) compared to their ethnic group. Multiracial students of different ancestors have their own experiences.
Identity White and European Americans
Some of the most famous families include Van Salees, Vanderbilts, Whitneys, Blacks, Cheswells, Newell, Battises, Bostons, Eldings of the North; Staffords, Gibsons, Locklears, Pendarvises, Driggers, Galphins, Fairfaxes, Grinsteads (Greenstead, Grinsted and Grimsted), Johnsons, Timrods, Darnalls of the South; and Picos, Yturrias and Bushes from the West.
DNA analysis showed mixed results regarding non-European ancestors in self-identified American America. A 2002 DNA analysis found that about 30% of identifiable White Americans had sub-Saharan African descent recently. A study of 2014 conducted on data obtained from 23andme customers found that the percentage of African American or American Indians among white Americans varied widely by region, with about 5% of the White Americans living in Louisiana and South Carolina having 2% or more of African descent.
Some biographical accounts include the autobiography Life in the Line of Color: The Real Story of the Black Boy Found by Black by Gregory Howard Williams; One Drop: The Hidden Life of My Dad - The Story of Race and Family Secrets written by Bliss Broyard about his father Anatole Broyard; the White Paper documentary about a white man in North Carolina who discovered he was a descendant of white-owned African plantation owners and raped African slaves; and a documentary on The Sanders Women from Shreveport, Louisiana.
Racial identity among Native Americans
In the 2010 Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their race was Native American (including Alaska Native). Of these, more than 27% typically show "Cherokee" as their ethnic origin. Many First Virginia Families claim the descendants of Pocahontas or some other "Indian princess". This phenomenon has been dubbed the "Cherokee Syndrome". In the US, many people foster an opportunistic ethnic identity as Native Americans, sometimes through Cherokee heritage groups or the Indian Wedding Blessing.
Many tribes, especially those in the Eastern United States, consist mainly of individuals with unambiguous Indigenous American identities, although most are of European descent. In terms of point, over 75% of those registered in Cherokee State have less than a quarter of Cherokee's blood, and the current Principal Principal of the Cherokee Nation, Bill John Baker, is 1/32 Cherokee, amounting to about 3%.
Historically, many Native Americans assimilated into colonial and later American societies, for example through the adoption of English and conversion to Christianity. In many cases, this process occurs through forced assimilation of children sent to special pesantren away from their families. Those who get away with white have the advantage of "white privilege". Today, after a generation of racial bleaching through hypergamy, many Native Americans are visually indistinguishable from White Americans, unlike mestizos in the United States, who may actually have little or no non-native ancestors.
Native Americans are more likely than other racial groups to practice racial exogamy, resulting in a steadily declining proportion of indigenous blood among those claiming Native American identity. Some tribes will even be forced to alienate tribe members who can not provide scientific "evidence" of their native ancestors, usually through the Indian Blood Degree Certificate. Disenrollment has become a controversial issue in Native American reservation politics.
Latin and Latino American Identities
A typical Latino American family may have members with various racial phenotypes, which means the Hispanic spouse may have children who look white and African and/or Native American and/or Asian. Latin Americans have some self-identification; most Latinos identify white in terms of race, while others identify as black and/or Native Americans and/or Asians. Latinos who do not want to identify as one of them identify only as Hispanic and/or some other races as their race.
Many Latin American migrants are mestizo, Amerindian, or other mixed breeds. Multiracial Latin has a limited media appearance; critics have accused the US Hispanic media of neglecting the white and Hispanic black and Hispanic black and Hispanic black and white populations with excessive representation of white and black-eyed Hispanic and Latino American blacks (which resemble Scandinavian and other Northern Europeans than they look like Hispanic whites and Latino America is largely typical of southern Europe), and also mulatto-skinned light and Hispanic and Latin American mestizos (often considered white in Hispanic and Latino populations if they reach middle class or higher social status), especially some actors in telenovela.
Black and African American Identity
Americans with Sub-Saharan African descent for historical reasons: slavery, Particip Sequel Vs Viratrem, eighth law, the one-drop rule of 20th century legislation, has often been classified as black (historically) or African America, even if they have significant European American or Native American descent. Because slavery became a racial caste, those enslaved and others of African ancestors were classified under the so-called "hypodecent" according to the lower status ethnic group. Many of the European ancestors and appearances "married white" and assimilated into white society because of their social and economic advantages, such as the generation of families identified as Melungeons, are now generally classified as whites but genetically shown to be European and sub- -Asian Africa.
Sometimes people of African-Americans and mixed-breed Americans report having older family members retain the relevant genealogical information. Tracing the African-American lineage can be a very difficult process, since the census did not identify slaves with names before the American Civil War, which meant that most African-Americans did not appear in the record. In addition, many white fathers who use sexual slaves sexually, even those who have long-term relationships such as Thomas Jefferson with Sally Hemings, do not recognize the children of their mixed race slaves in the notes, so the father disappears.
The colonial records of ships and sales of French and Spanish slaves, and records of estates in all former colonies, often have more information about slaves, from which researchers reconstruct the history of slave families. Genealogists have begun to find records of plantations, court records, land deeds and other sources to trace African-American families and individuals before 1870. Since slaves are generally forbidden to learn to read and write, black families go through oral history, which has persistence. Similarly, Native Americans generally do not learn to read and write English, although some do so in the nineteenth century. Until 1930, census counters used the terms colorless and mulatto-colored people to classify people from clear mixed race. When the terms were dropped, as a result of lobbying by the southern congressional bloc, the Census Bureau only used a black or white binary classification, as is typical in the separate southern states.
In the 1980s, parents of mixed race children began organizing and lobbying for the addition of more inclusive racial terms that would reflect the heritage of their children. When the US government proposed the addition of the "bi-racial" or "multiracial" category in 1988, the response from the public was largely negative. Some African-American organizations, and African-American political leaders, such as Congressman Diane Watson and Congressman Augustus Hawkins, are very vocal in their rejection of the category, as they fear losing political and economic power if African Americans reduce their numbers by self-identification.
Since the 1990s and 2000s, the terms mixed race, biracial, and multiracial have been used more frequently in society. It is still most common in the United States (unlike some other countries with a history of slavery) for people with African features that are seen to be identified as or classified only as blacks or African Americans, regardless of other obvious ancestors.
President Barack Obama is of East African and European American descent; he identified as African Americans. A 2007 poll, when Obama was a presidential candidate, found that Americans differ in their responses to how they classify it: the majority of whites and Hispanics classify it as biracial, but the majority of African-Americans classify it as black.
A 2003 study found an average of 18.6% (Â ± 1.5%) European mix in a sample population of 416 African-Americans from Washington, DC. Studies of other populations in other areas have found different ethnic percentages.
Twenty percent of African Americans have more than 25% of European ancestors, reflecting the long history of intergroup unions. The "mostly African" group is essentially African, as 70% of African Americans in this group have less than 15% of European descent. 20% of African Americans in the "most mixed" group (2.7% of the US population) have between 25% and 50% of European ancestors.
Statement by author Sherrel W. Stewart that "most" African Americans have a legacy of Native Americans, not supported by genetic researchers who have conducted extensive population mapping studies. The TV series on African-American ancestors, organized by the intellectual Henry Louis Gates, Jr., has geneticists who discuss in detail various ancestors among African Americans. They note there is popular belief in high-level mixed Native Americans that are not supported by data that has been collected. (Reference is coming)
Genetic testing of male and female line directly evaluates only two of the lineage of a person. For this reason, people at the Gates show have a more complete DNA test.
Critic Troy Duster, writing in The Chronicle of Higher Education, thinks the Gates African American Lives series should tell people more about the limitations of genetic SNP testing. He said that not all ancestors may appear in the test, especially for those who claimed native Americans. Other experts also agree.
Population testing is still underway. Some Native American groups sampled may not share the marker pattern sought. Geneticists recognize that DNA testing has not been able to differentiate among members of different Indigenous American nations. There is genetic evidence for three major migrations to North America, but not for more recent historical differentiation. Moreover, not all Native Americans have been tested, so scientists do not know for sure that Native Americans have only the genetic markers they identify.
- Admixture
On census forms, governments rely on individual identification. Contemporary African Americans have varying degrees of mixing with European ancestors. Percentages also have varying degrees of Native American ancestry.
Many African American families of descent were free of union between white women and African men in colonial Virginia. Their free breeds migrated to the borders of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina in the 18th and 19th centuries. There are also similar free families in Delaware and Maryland, as documented by Paul Heinegg.
In addition, many Native American women turn to African American men because of the decline in the number of Native American men due to illness and warfare. Some Native American women buy African slaves but, unknown to European sellers, the women liberate African men and marry them into their respective tribes. If an African American man has children by an Native American woman, their children are free because of the mother's status.
In their efforts to ensure the decade of white supremacy after emancipation, in the early 20th century, most of the southern states created laws based on a one-drop rule, defining it as black, people of known African descent. This is a strict interpretation of what had prevailed in the nineteenth century; he ignored many of the state's mixed families and opposed the prevailing social rules to judge a person through appearance and association. Some courts call it "a traceable amount rule." The anthropologists call it an example of the hypodecent rule, which means that racially mixed people are given the status of a socially disguised group.
Before the one-drop rule, different countries have different laws about colors. More importantly, social acceptance often plays a greater role in how one is perceived and how an identity is interpreted than any law. In the border area, there are fewer questions about origins. People see how people do, whether they serve in the militia and vote, which is the responsibility and the signs of free citizens. When questions about racial identity arise because of inheritance problems, for example, litigation results are often based on how people are accepted by neighbors.
In Virginia before 1920, for example, a person is legally white if it has seven or eight or more white ancestors. The one-drop rule originated in some southern South America at the end of the 19th century, possibly in response to white efforts to maintain white supremacy and restrict black political forces after the control of legislators of Democrats in the late 1870s. The first year in which the US Census decreased the mulatto category was 1920; the enumerator of the year was ordered to classify people by binary as white or black. This is the result of a Southern-dominated Congress that convinces the Census Bureau to change its rules.
After the Civil War, racial segregation forced African-Americans to share more commonality in society than they might provide with varying degrees of ancestry, education, and economics. Binary division alters the separate status of traditionally free color people in Louisiana, for example, although they retain the strong Louisiana Ole culture with respect to French culture and language, and Catholic practice. African Americans are beginning to create common causes - regardless of their multiracial mix or social and economic stratification. In twentieth-century changes, during the rise of civil rights and the Black Power movements, the African-American community increased its own pressures for people of every part of African descent that the black community would claim to add to its power.
In the 1980s, parents of mixed race children (and mixed race ethnic adults) began to organize and lobby for the ability to show more than one ethnic category in the Census and other legal forms. They refuse to be put into one category only. When the US government proposed the addition of the "bi-racial" or "multiracial" category in 1988, responses from the general public were largely negative. Some African-American organizations and political leaders, such as Senator Diane Watson and Representative Augustus Hawkins, are very vocal in their rejection of the category. They are afraid of losing political and economic power if African Americans leave one of their categories.
This reaction is characterized as "the irony of history" by Reginald Daniel (2002). The African American self-imposed has been the answer to the one-drop rule, but then people refused the chance to claim some of their inheritance. At the bottom is the desire not to lose the political power of the larger group. Whereas before people refuse to be characterized as a group regardless of ancestral span, now some of them themselves try to keep them in the same group.
Definition of African Americans
Since the end of the 20th century, the number of African and Caribbean ethnic African immigrants has increased in the United States. Together with the publicity about the ancestors of President Barack Obama, whose father is from Kenya, several black authors argue that new conditions are needed for new immigrants. They suggest that the term "African-American" should refer strictly to the descendants of African slaves and free-colored people who survived the era of slavery in the United States. They argue that grouping together all ethnic Africans irrespective of the state of their unique ancestors will deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American slave descendant community. They say new African ethnic immigrants need to recognize the unique background of their ancestors.
Stanley Crouch writes in a New York Daily News article "Obama's mother is a white American, his father is black Kenyan," in a column titled "What Obama Is Not: Black Like Me." During the 2008 campaign, mixed race columnist David Ehrenstein (who is less than half African-American) from the LA Times accused liberal white people of flocking to Obama because he was "Magic Negro", a term referring in blacks without a past that only appears to help the white main agenda (as a cultural/driver protagonist). Ehrenstein goes on to say, "He is there to assuage the white" guilt "they feel for the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history."
Reacting to media criticism of Michelle Obama during the 2008 presidential election, Charles Kenzie Steele, Jr., CEO of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference said, "Why did they attack Michelle Obama, and not really attack, to that extent, her husband? blood slaves in him. "He later claimed his comments were meant to be" provocative "but refused to expand the subject. Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (famously mistaken as "recent American immigrant" by French President Nicolas Sarkozy), said "the descendants of slaves do not get much from the beginning, and I think you continue to see some effects from it." He also rejected the immigrant designation for African Americans and instead preferred the term "black" or "white".
European and Native American Identity
Racial relations among Native Americans and Europeans occurred from the early years of Spanish, French and English explorations. explorers and trappers. The impact of Europe was immediate, extensive, and profound - more than any other race that had contact with Native Americans during the early years of colonialism and nationalism.
Some Europeans living among the Natives are called "white Indians". They "lived in indigenous communities for many years, learned indigenous languages ​​fluently, attended indigenous councils, and often fought with their native counterparts." More and more typical are merchants and trappers, who marry Native American women from tribal borders and have family with them. Some traders, who hold bases in cities, have what are called "state wives" among Native Americans, with wives and children of European-American law at home in the city. Not all leave their "natural" race children. Some arranged for children to be sent to European-American schools for their education.
The social identity of children is largely determined by the tribal kinship system. Among the matrilineal tribes in the Southeast, mixed race children are generally accepted as and identified as Indians, as they gain their social status from their clan and mother's tribe, and often grow with their mothers and male relatives. In contrast, among patrilineal Omaha, for example, white boys and Omaha women are considered "white"; mixed race children and their mothers will be protected, but children can formally become tribal members only if adopted by a man.
At the beginning of the 20th century in the West, "married white people" are listed in separate categories on the Dawes Roll, when tribal members are listed and identified for land allocation to individual heads of families in the termination of communal land in the Indian Territory. There was an increase in mixed marriages after this time when whites tried to dominate Native American lands.
Some early male settlers married Native American women and had informal associations with them. The initial relationship between Native Americans and Europeans is often charged with tension, but also has moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy. Marriage takes place in English and Latin colonies between European men and Native women. For example, on April 5, 1614, Pocahontas, a Powhatan woman in Virginia today, married Britishman John Rolfe of Jamestown. Their son Thomas Rolfe is the ancestor of many descendants at First Families of Virginia. As a result, British law does not exclude people with some Native American ancestors from being considered British or white.
In the early nineteenth century, the Native American woman Sacagawea, who would help translate and guide the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the West, married French raider Toussaint Charbonneau. Most marriages between Europeans and Native Americans are between European men and Native American women. Depending on the familial system of the female tribe, their children will be more easily assimilated into the tribe. Countries that have matrilineal systems, such as the Creek and Cherokee in the Southeast, provide the status of mixed race children in their clan and mother's tribe. If the tribe has a patrilineal system, like Omaha, white boys are considered white. Unless they are specifically adopted into tribes by adult males, they can not have social status in them.
In those years, a Native American man had to get the consent of an elderly European man to marry a white woman. When such a marriage is approved, it is provided that "he can prove to support him as a white woman in a good home".
At the end of the 19th century, three middle-class European-American female teachers married to the Native American men whom they met at Hampton Institute during the years when running the Indian program. At the end of the nineteenth century, Charles Eastman, a European physician and Sioux who trained at Boston University, married Elaine Goodale, a European-American woman from New England. They met and worked together in the Dakota Territory when he became an Indian Education Inspector and he was a doctor for reservations. Her maternal grandfather was Seth Eastman, an Army artist and officer from New England, who married a Sioux woman and had a daughter with him while he was stationed at Fort Snelling in Minnesota.
African and Native American Identities
Racial relations between Native Americans and African Americans are part of American history that has been ignored. The earliest records of African and Native American relations in America occurred in April 1502, when the first kidnapped African was taken to Hispaniola to serve as a slave. Some escaped, and to a place on the mainland in Santo Domingo, the first Black Indian was born. In addition, examples of African slaves' escape from European colonizers and absorbed by Native Americans occurred as far back as 1526. In June of that year, Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon established a Spanish colony near the mouth of the Pee Dee River in what is now east of South Carolina. A Spanish settlement called San Miguel de Gualdape. Among the settlements there are 100 enslaved Africans. In 1526, the first African slaves escaped from the colony and took refuge with indigenous Native Americans.
The European colonists created an agreement with the Native American tribesmen who asked for the return of escaped slaves. For example, in 1726, the British governor of New York demanded the promise of Iroquois to return all the escaped slaves who had joined them. This same promise was drawn from Huron Nation in 1764, and from Delaware Nation in 1765, although no slave records were ever returned. Many advertisements call for the return of African Americans who have married Native Americans or who speak Indigenous American. The main exposure that African and Native Americans have to each other comes through the institution of slavery. Indigenous Americans learn that Africans have what the Native Americans consider to be the 'Big Drug' in their bodies because Africans are completely immune to Old World disease that depletes most of the indigenous population. Therefore, many tribes encourage marriage between the two groups, to create stronger and healthier children from unions.
For African-Americans, the one-drop rule is a significant factor in ethnic solidarity. African Americans generally share a common cause in society regardless of their multiracial mix, or social/economic stratification. In addition, African-Americans found it, close, impossible to learn about their Native American heritage as many elderly families withheld pertinent genealogical information. Tracing the African-American lineage can be a very difficult process, especially for Native American descendants, since African Americans who are slaves are forbidden to learn to read and write, and the majority of Native Americans do not speak English, do not read or write them.
Identity Pacific Islander America
During the 1800s, Christian missionaries from England and the United States followed merchants to the Hawaiian archipelago. In the long run, the Anglo-Saxon presence had a negative impact on the level of attention of Hawaiian royal women held for their own native appearance. For centuries before the arrival of Christians, the Hawaiian first aesthetics, like dark skin and numerous bodies, have been regarded as signs of nobility. No matter how much they adjust their behavior to Western standards, some Anglo-Saxon missionaries are relentlessly referring to indigenous women as "Hawaiians". In the last half of the nineteenth century, some Hawaiian women began marrying European men who considered them exotic. The men, however, chose Hawaiian women who were thinner and pale in the skin.
While some Pacific Islanders of America continue their traditional endogamous culture, many within this population now have mixed racial ancestors, sometimes combining Europeans, Native Americans, as well as East Asian ancestors. The Hawaiians originally described the descendants of the mixed race as hapa . This term has grown to include all people from mixed ancestors of Asia and/or the Pacific Islands. Furthermore, many ethnic Chinese also settled on the islands and married to Pacific Islanders.
There are many other Pacific Islands outside Hawaii that do not share this common history with Hawaii and the Asian population is not the only race that Pacific Islands combined.
American Eurasian identity
In its original sense, an Amerasian is a person born in Asia, with a US military father and Asian mother. The colloquial language, the term is sometimes considered synonymous with Asian Americans, to describe anyone of Asian and American mixed descent, regardless of the circumstances.
According to the US Census Bureau, concerning multi-racial families in 1990, the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one and a half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990. In 1990, -the one White couple, the other parent... is Asia by 45 percent [of all children.]
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner of California State University, Northridge, by some calculations, the largest part of the white American/Indian American and Alaskan Native indigenous populations, at 7.015.017; followed by white/black at 737.492; then white/Asian at 727,197; and finally White/Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander at 125,628.
The US census categorizes the Eurasian response in the "Some Other Races" section as part of the Asian race. The Eurasian response that the US Census officially recognizes is Indo-Europe, Amerasia, and Eurasia.
Afro-Asian American Identity
The Chinese enter the United States as laborers, especially on the West Coast and in the west. After the Reconstruction era, when blacks set up independent fields, white growers imported Chinese laborers to satisfy their need for labor. In 1882, the Chinese Exceptions Act was passed, and Chinese workers who chose to stay in the US could not ask their wives to join them. In the South, some Chinese are married to black and mulatto communities, because generally discrimination means they do not take a white couple. They quickly left work as laborers, and arranged groceries in small towns throughout the South. They work to get their children educated and mobile socially.
At the 2000 census, there were 106,782 Afro-Asian individuals in the United States.
Passing identity
"Passing" is a term for a person most of the ancestors of a dominant group with some ancestors of a subordinate group, and who are considered part of the majority, when social conventions will classify people with subordinate groups.
The phenomenon known as "passing as white" is difficult to explain in other countries or to foreign students. The typical question is: "Should not Americans say that someone who meets white is white, or almost all white, and before has passed as black?" or "To be consistent, should not you say that a single white person will pass away as a black person?"... A person who is one-quarter or less American or Korean or Filipino is not considered to be graduating if he or she is married with and fully joined the community life which is so dominant that minority ancestors need not be hidden.... It is often argued that the main reason for this is that the physical differences between other groups and whites are less pronounced than physical differences between blacks and whites of Africa, and therefore it is less threatening to the whites.... [W] the ancestors in one of these racial minority groups do not exceed a quarter, a person is not defined only as a member of that group.
The seventeenth-century American colonial law defined children from African slave mothers who took their mother's status, and were born into slavery irrespective of race or father status, under the Partrant sequitur of ventrem. The relationship of slavery to "race" leads to slavery as a racial caste. However, the vast majority of the colored folk family formed in Virginia before the American Revolution were the descendants of the union between white women and African men, who often worked and lived together in more loose conditions during the early colonial period. While interracial marriages are then banned, white men often take sexual advantage from female slaves, and many generations of multiracial children are born. By the late 1800s, it was common among African Americans to use passing for educational opportunities like the first African-American graduate from Vassar College, Anita Florence Hemmings. Some of the nineteenth-century categorizing schemes define people based on the proportion of African descent: people whose parents are black and white are classified as mulattoes, with one black grandparent and three white as quadroons, and with one black grandfather and the rest white as octoroon. The latter category remains in the overall black or color category, but before the Civil War, in Virginia and several other states, a person with a one-eight or black ancestor is legally white. Some members of this category pass temporarily or permanently as white.
Until the Civil War, racial identity depends on a combination of appearance, African blood fraction, and social circle. After the white people regained power in the South after the Reconstruction, they established racial segregation to reaffirm white supremacy, followed by a law that defined people with clear African ancestors known as blacks, under the hypodent principle.
However, as several thousand blacks have crossed the color line every year, millions of white Americans have relatively recent African ancestors (from the last 250 years). Statistical analysis conducted in 1958 estimated that 21 percent of the white population had some African ancestors. The study concludes that the majority of African Americans today are classified as white and not black.
In fiction
The figure of "tragic October" is an abolitionist literary stock character: a mixed race woman raised as if a white woman in her white father's household, until her bankruptcy or death has been reduced to a rough position. She may even be unaware of her status before being reduced to victimization. The first character of this type was the main character Lydia Maria Child's "The Quadroons" (1842), a short story. This character allows the abolitionist to draw attention to sexual exploitation in slavery and, unlike the depiction of the suffering of the hands of the field, does not allow slave owners to avenge that the suffering of the Northern factory's hands is no easier. Northern factory owners will not sell their own children into slavery.
Abolitionists sometimes display exciting mulatto slaves and escape in their public lectures to evoke sentiments towards slavery. They showed the northerners of those slaves who looked like them rather than "Others"; this technique, labeled the White Slave Propaganda , undermines the separation between peoples and makes it impossible for the public to ignore the brutality of slavery.
Charles W. Chesnutt, an author of the post-Civil War era, explores stereotypes in his role as a multiracial figure in the southern society in the postwar years. Even freed and possibly pre-wared characters have difficulty making a place for themselves in the postwar years. Her stories feature mixed race characters with complex life. William Faulkner also describes the lives of mixed race people and complex racial families in the postwar South.
The 21st-century filmmaker, Greg Pak says that the multiracial characters in films are often portrayed as more instinctive than whites. He wrote,
Multiracial characters are often described as 'Wild Half-Castes', sexually destructive antagonists explicitly or implicitly deemed incapable of controlling the instinctive impulses of their non-white heritage. The media that portray the multiracial as a 'half-breed' predator... [and] the 'halfbreed' teaser perpetuates a multiracial relationship with sexual deviation and violence. The other recurring stereotype is 'Tragic Mulatto', a distinctive character
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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